Articles

There is an abundance of theories about the organizational impact of information technology -- but an odd lack of consensus, given the extraordinary attention this subject receives. Researchers at MIT's Center for Information Systems Research recently attempted to refocus the issue, and in this article they describe the results of their investigation. They looked at the major theoretical approaches that have been propounded and found that each contributed something important, but that none was sufficient by itself. The authors synthesize the various schools of thought -- and the results of their own research -- by arguing that IT's most important role is allowing firms to manage organizational interdependence.

The classic article has been read by countless business-school students and marketing professionals since it originally appeared in 1977. The model proposed at that time -- which outlined how an independent entity should go about assessing an existing marketing program -- was sufficiently streamlined that it holds up very well today. In their retrospective comments, the authors discuss marketing issues that have come to the forefront in the intervening years: globalization of markets, information technology, communications/promotion technology, strategic planning, more sophisticated analytical tools, and the increased attention paid to marketing throughout the organization. They close with suggestions on how to implement marketing audit recommendations.

The fact that Japanese manufacturers made tremendous inroads on the global automobile market during the 1970s will surprise nobody. What may surprise many is that Toyota's productivity rates exceeded U.S. manufacturers' as long ago as the 1960s. Business historian Michael A. Cusumano details the spectacular developments in Japanese productivity, quality, and process flexibility that have occurred over the past thirty years.

Originally published in 1968, Edgar Schein's article examined the process by which a new member adapts to the value system of an organization. It pointed out that both nonconformity and overconformity to an organization's norms present their own dangers. In an afterword to this republished article, Schein reflects on the paradoxes that have arisen in the field of organizational development in the past twenty years. Some experts now argue that corporate culture should encourage diversity; others argue that it should stress loyalty (in a sense, nonconformity versus overconformity). Schein himself defends a less "canned" approach: accept the culture that exists and make the best of it.

The author examines the simple but profound hypothesis that reducing throughput time (the length of time between the arrival of raw materials at the factory and the shipment of the finished product) is the single most important determinant of improved factory productivity. He concludes that focusing on throughput time forces managers to reduce inventories, setup time, and lot sizes; in addition, it encourages improved quality, revamped factory layout, stabilized production schedules, and minimized engineering changes. The three research studies on which this article is based indicate that, of all the possible techniques for improving productivity, only the JIT-related ones are statistically, demonstrably effective.

Fourth generation information technology opens up business opportunities that call for line management leadership in system conception and implementation. The role of information systems (IS) managers, too, must grow as a result of changing technology. This paper examines the reasons for and implications of these important role changes.

This paper offers ten commonsense principles that will help project managers define goals, establish checkpoints, schedules, and resource requirements, motivate and empower team members, facilitate communication, and manage conflict.

The author is one of a group of Japanese management scholars developing a frame of reference strikingly different from that of American scholars writing about business administration. Here Professor Nonaka introduces the concept of compressive management, which recognizes a key role for middle managers in information development. "The essential logic of compressive management is that top management creates a vision or dream, and middle management creates and implements concrete concepts to solve and transcend the contradictions arising from gaps between what exists at the moment and what management hopes to create." The development of the Honda "City" is used to illustrate "middle-up-down" management. In their wish to develop an entirely new car, Honda's top managers gave a group of young designers that task -- with virtually no direction. The designers first attempted to modify an existing model but were eventually forced into questioning and transcending universal assumptions about automobile design.

The authors have argued that limited organizational capability is the most critical constraint facing the international companies that attempt to respond to new strategic demands ("Managing Across Borders: New Strategic Requirements," SMR, Summer 1987, Reprint 2841). Here, they describe how companies have overcome this constraint by building a "transnational" organization able to cope with the increasing complexity of the international environment.

International businesses faced new strategic challenges in the 1980s. Corporations that had once succeeded with relatively one-dimensional strategies -- efficiency, responsiveness, or ability to exploit learning -- were forced to broaden their outlook. Successful "transnational" corporations integrated all three of those characteristics. They did so by building on the strengths -- but accepting the limitations -- of their administrative heritages. This is the first of two articles; the second will describe how actual companies made that transition.